Nexus approach considering Water-Exergy-Carbon-Cost for sustainable short-trip transportation systems

Abstract

Urban expansion has intensified the reliance on various transportation modes, including internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). However, evaluating their environmental impact requires a complete life cycle perspective that considers both direct and indirect processes beyond tailpipe emissions. This study introduces a Water-Exergy-Carbon-Cost Nexus Analysis (WExCCNa) framework to comprehensively assess the environmental and economic performance. The WExCCNa evaluates direct and indirect water, exergy, and carbon impacts across all life cycle stages while also accounting for the complete energy supply chain from production to final vehicle use. To address uncertainty, a probabilistic life cycle assessment integrating Monte Carlo simulations and global sensitivity analysis was applied using a 10 km distance representing typical short-trip patterns. Country-specific results showed strong regional variability, with ICEVs having the highest impacts across all nations due to carbon emissions of 84–98 g CO2/km and water use often exceeding 400 L/km. HEVs remain the most sustainable option, with emissions around 5–6 g CO2/km and low water consumption below 150 L/km. BEVs and FCEVs displayed strong dependence on national electricity mixes, with BEV emissions ranging from 18 to 100 g CO2/km depending on coal intensity. Overall, regional electricity structures fundamentally shape environmental performance, providing an uncertainty-aware basis for identifying sustainable transportation. © 2025 Elsevier Ltd